Units

• OVERVIEW
• Unit 1 Importance, value and classification of farm animals 
• Unit 2 Cattle breeds
• Unit 3 Sheep breeds
• Unit 4 Goat breeds
• Unit 5 Pig breeds
• Unit 6 Poultry breeds
• Unit 7 Horses, donkeys and mules 
• Unit 8 Game animals 
• Topic questions 

TOPIC 5: ANIMAL STUDIES

Overview

What you will cover in Topic 5

Unit 1: Importance, Value and Classification of Farm Animals

Our ancestors domesticated animals → made farming with animals possible. The development of different breeds of each of the species made these farm animals even more useful to humans:

• farming with livestock provides a continuous source of protein, which allows us to live in settlements instead of having to hunt for food.
• animal production provides South Africa with source of income when we export.
• a healthy livestock industry gives a country food security, which is the ability to be independent of other countries for our food supply.
• South Africa is rich in wild animal species. Some species can be farmed on natural veld for meat, trophies and skins. Preserving the ‘Big Five’ provides us with a source of income from tourism, while allowing us to preserve the natural environment.

1.1 The development and domestication of farm animals
Twelve thousand years ago our ancestors were nomadic. They relied on the natural environment for all their resources. They were called hunter-gatherers because they survived by gathering food supplies, such as fruit, nuts and eggs, and by hunting.

• In what is today the Middle East, they developed a relationship with the grey wolf.
  • Some of the tamer cubs became permanent companions of humans. They were useful as they guarded families and helped with hunting.
  • By keeping the tamest wolves and allowing them to breed with each other, humans gradually created a new species of animal: the domestic dog.
  • Through selection and breeding, humans selected the genes for tameness. From this ancestral dog, the 400 dog breeds that exist today have been bred by selecting them for various physical and behavioural characteristics. This was the beginning of animal domestication.
• Groups of hunter-gatherers began to settle down and cultivate crops, such as barley and oats. Using the same method they used for domesticating the dog, they tamed, selected and bred other wild animals. This caused physical and behavioural changes that made them suitable for farming.
  • SHEEP were derived from a hairy sheep called the mouflon, from the mountains of Asia.
  • PIGS were derived from a species of wild boar found in Eurasia.
  • GOATS were probably derived from the bezoar mountain goat of Iran.
  • CATTLE were domesticated from the now extinct aurochs that roamed through Europe, North Africa and Asia.
  • CHICKENS were bred from a species of wild fowl from India and Asia.
  • DONKEYS were derived from the wild ass of Egypt.
  • HORSES were bred from a wild species that occurred on the Eurasian steppes.

Not all wild animals carry the genes for domestication so humans, as they migrated to various parts of the world, took their domestic animals with them.

• The wild animals of southern Africa were not found to be suitable for domestication, but when the Khoekhoe migrated southwards they brought their cattle and fat-tailed sheep with them.
• African migrations brought the ancestor of Nguni cattle.
• The Dutch brought pigs with them in 1652, and since then various breeds of livestock have been imported, and these have been crossbred (mating animals from two different breeds) with existing stock for increased production.

1.1.1 The concept and development of breeds
An animal breed is a variety of a particular animal species, for example, a fox terrier. A breed is created by crossing closely related animals that resemble each other, to establish and maintain a recognisable form or characteristic.

• Breeders of farm animals found that by selecting animals for a certain characteristic and crossing them with similar animals, they produced a group of animals with the same characteristics.
  • When this process was continued with successive generations they could produce a group of animals that were very different from the original stock.
  • Crossbreeding is used in modern farming to produce an animal that combines good characteristics of both breeds (e.g. the selection and crossbreeding of cattle that produced more milk than others gave rise to the modern dairy animal).
• The advantages of pure breeds are that they have predictable or stable characteristics that can be used by the farmer, for example, a production trait such as milk production, or adaptability to climatic conditions.
• Purebred animals can develop genetic problems.

1.2 The economic importance of the livestock industry
The livestock industry in South Africa has great economic importance:

• it provides employment
• the products earn farmers and the country money in foreign currency.

In the agricultural sector, livestock plays a larger part than either field crops or horticulture. The gross national income from animal products in 2010 was R64 billion.

• South Africa has about 50 000 large, well-developed commercial farms.
  • Commercial farms provide about 10% of South Africa’s formal employment, as well as work for casual labourers.
  • Many farmworkers live on the farms and their children receive education at farm schools. Commercial farms therefore provide livelihoods, housing and basic education to about one million employees and six million of their family members.
  • Livestock production on these farms almost meets the basic needs of our population, but we still need to import.
  • South Africa exports surplus products, mainly wool and mohair, totalling nearly R2 billion in value.
• There are also about 240 000 small-scale farmers who provide a livelihood to their family members and occasional employment to others.
  • They supply local and regional markets where large numbers of informal traders make a living.
• There are a further approximately 3 million farmers, mostly in the communal areas of the former homelands, who are subsistence farmers, producing food primarily to meet the needs of their families.

1.2.1 Cattle
Cattle have been a symbol of wealth since ancient times.

• Today South Africa has about 13,8 million cattle:
  • 60% are owned by the commercial farming sector
  • 40% are owned by rural farmers for personal use and do not come to market. These cattle have great potential for contributing to food security, since we have to import R1 billion worth of beef into the country.
• Cattle are economically important because they:
  • provide a large percentage of our food requirements in the form of beef and dairy products.
  • earn income → in 2010, R14 billion was earned from slaughtered cattle and calves, and R9 billion from milk production; cowhides are also sold.
  • are still used as draught animals in the rural areas (oxen).
  • source of wealth in black African communities → used for lobola.

1.2.2 Sheep
Sheep numbers have decreased from 40 million a few decades ago to 24,6 million.

• They are important because they can graze in the most arid parts of the country
• The annual wool production is 48,3 million kg, which earns roughly R1,6 billion. South Africa is the world’s leading producer of Karakul.
• South Africa imports R1 billion of mutton per year.

1.2.3 Goats
Goats number roughly 6,3 million.

• Meat goats are raised for use in rural areas. The meat is seldom sold to main markets because of the belief that it is unpalatable and because it has a bad smell, despite the fact that the meat of young animals is tasty.
• Goat milk and cheese is becoming more popular.
• South Africa is a leading exporter in the world of mohair (Angora goats).

1.2.4 Pigs
Pigs number 1,6 million.

• Commercial farming industry = intensive → produces pork, ham, bacon and lard.
• Pig hides are used for leather products and the hair is used in various industries.
• Indigenous pigs are an important subsistence animal in southern Africa.

1.2.5 Poultry
Poultry = all types of birds that produce meat, eggs or feathers (e.g. chicken, duck, geese, quail, pheasant, guinea fowl). Chicken = most commonly farmed and important.

• The broiler chicken (meat) and egg industry is at times, depending on the size of the maize crop, the biggest agricultural sector in South Africa, and the biggest contributor to protein in our diet.
• More than 850 million broiler birds are hatched, grown and slaughtered annually and 16 million eggs are produced daily.
• Despite this, a further R2 billion worth of poultry meat needs to be imported annually.

1.2.6 Mules and donkeys
These animals are used mainly as work animals in the rural areas where machinery is limited. Donkey carts can provide rural families with a means of transport.

1.2.7 Horses
Horses are now used mainly for racing, showing and jumping, or for other sports such as polo and endurance riding. They are also used for work, for example in the mounted police. Horse trails in the countryside encourage tourism.

1.2.8 Animal by-products
Livestock are kept mainly for products such as meat, milk, eggs and wool, but there are many by-products from this industry:

• Manure: is used for soil fertilisation to ensure better crop yields; it can be sold for garden use and also for use as fuel.
• Carcass by-products: although livestock are slaughtered mainly for meat and hides, there are many other parts of the carcass that can be utilised for maximum economic benefit:
  • Carcass meal is made from the parts which are not sold as fresh meat and sold to the pet food industry.
  • Bones, hooves and ears of various animals are dried and sold for dog treats.
  • Blood meal (dried powdered blood) is used in animal feeds or fertiliser.
  • Intestines are used for sausage casings.
  • Animal fat can be used for cooking, for making soap and other cosmetics, for feedstock and for bioenergy.

1.3 Ruminants and non-ruminants

• Ruminants = cattle, sheep, goats and wild antelope (herbivores):
  • Regurgitate their semi-digested food for chewing into finer particles (chewing the cud).
  • Unable to digest it themselves. Stomachs divided into four parts (i.e. rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) in which micro-organisms break down the cellulose in the plant material.
  • Rumination allows the material to be broken down further so the micro- organisms can digest the plant fibre more effectively.
  • When the micro-organisms have broken down the plant matter, the stomach content moves down into the intestines where the absorption of nutrients occurs.
• Non-ruminants = horses, pigs and poultry:
  • Monogastric: one simple stomach.
  • However, like ruminants, horses are herbivores and they have a long colon or hindgut in which micro-organisms help with breakdown of plant material.
  • Pigs, like humans, are omnivores, which means they eat both plant and animal material. Unlike ruminants and horses, they cannot use grass as food.

Terms used in livestock science

Unit 2: Cattle Breeds

2.1 Bos indicus and Bos taurus
2.1.1 Bos indicus (African type)

• Also called zebu → originated in South Asia, possibly in India.
  • also known as humped cattle → characterised by: fatty hump on their shoulders, drooping ears and a large dewlap (loose fold of skin hanging under the throat).
  • well adapted to hot, arid climates: the hump helps in the storage of water, the loose skin helps in heat dissipation; also have sweat glands all over their bodies.
  • fairly resistant to African diseases and parasites.
  • farmed throughout the tropics, for beef, dairy and as draught oxen.
  • there are about 75 breeds of zebu: some came to Africa → became established as separate breeds; others were imported more recently from Asia.

2.1.2 Bos taurus (European type) or taurine cattle

• Originated in Europe, northeastern parts of Asia and some parts of Africa.
• Thrive in cooler climates, they are not adapted to hot, dry places as they do not have humps or dewlaps, and they usually have their sweat glands on their noses.
• Vary in size and body structure, depending on the uses for which they were bred.
  • Some are plump and round, others lean and angular.
• Seldom used for draught.
• Beef breeds produce good quality meat,and dairy breeds produce plentiful milk.
  • They do better on good quality food.
• Tend to be susceptible to drought and African diseases.
• Hybrids or crosses have been developed by interbreeding taurine breeds with zebu.
  • This achieves the taurines’ good quality of meat and quantity of milk, along with the zebus’ ability to thrive in hot climates.

2.2 Beef cattle breeds

• First domesticated cattle were used for their milk and meat, and also as draught animals (this role was largely taken over by the horse, and later by machinery).
• In time, specialisation took place and cattle were specially selected for milk production (dairy cattle) or for meat production (beef cattle).
• Those bred for both are called dual-purpose animals.

2.2.1 General characteristics of a beef bull and cow

• Beef breeds are developed to provide meat, and so they need to grow fast, gain good weight per quantity of fodder consumed, and produce good meat (carcass) quality.
• Good meat has a high cutability (a large percentage of lean meat), and marbling (fat between the muscle, known as ‘taste fat’, is well-distributed).
• Bulls should have a large frame size, with a compact, block-like conformation, good depth, muscular straight shoulders and well-developed hindquarters.
  • Able to stand squarely on four strong feet with well-structured legs to ensure easy gait over long distances. They must be fertile and sire 50 calves per year.
• A mature cow should be lean and refined.
  • Cows must have well-developed udders. They should be fertile and able to calve easily, with low mortality.

2.2.2 Description of various beef breeds
South Africa → farm with indigenous and exotic breeds. Indigenous breeds = bred from stock originated in Africa; exotic breeds = bred from stock originated elsewhere.

Some of our indigenous breeds

Some of our exotic breeds

2.3 Dairy cattle breeds

• Farmers should choose a dairy breed that is adapted to the climate and conditions of the farm environment, as some breeds tend to be more heat resistant and better foragers than others.
• The commonly used dairy breeds are exotic and therefore susceptible to African diseases, particularly those borne by ticks.

2.3.1 General characteristics of a dairy bull and cow

• Dairy breeds are developed to convert forage efficiently into milk for human consumption and for the production of various dairy products.
• The cows need to be able to provide surplus milk, well in excess of that required by their young.
• For commercial purposes, consistently high yields with a good butterfat and protein composition are essential.
• Cows should have a feminine appearance, with a wedge-shaped outline. They should not be over-muscular, heavy, or have fat deposits.
• They need a good pelvic shape for easy calving. They should be productive through a long lifespan.
• Udders should be well formed for ease of milking and strong for capacity. Cows should be very good-natured for easy management in the dairy.
• Bulls should be strong, masculine, well-formed and hardy. They should have good general muscle development with no excessive fat, and must be reproductively sound and efficient.

2.3.2 Description of various dairy breeds

2.4 Dual-purpose cattle breeds
2.4.1 General characteristics of the dual-purpose cattle breeds

• Sometimes, in order to provide both beef and dairy, the herd will be a mixture of dairy and beef breeds.
• However, it is easier and more economical to have one breed, a dual-purpose breed, able to meet both requirements. This is provided for by hardy animals that:
  • grow fast
  • calve easily
  • produce surplus milk
  • provide good carcass.

2.4.2 Description of various dual-purpose cattle breeds

Unit 3: Sheep Breeds

3.1 Sheep breeds based on their utilisation

• First domesticated sheep were used for their hides, milk, and meat. When people learned how to spin wool into strong fibres (about 6 000 years ago), sheep began to be favoured for their fleece.
• Worldwide, there are now more than 200 different breeds of domestic sheep, and each can be classified into one of the following groups, according to utilisation:
  • Mutton breeds:
    • They produce meat (mutton and lamb).
    • These are non-wool breeds.
  • Wool breeds:
    • They produce varying qualities of wool.
    • Fine wool is used for the clothing industry.
    • Medium wool is usually felted into blankets, or used for jerseys and socks.
    • Coarse fibres are used to make carpets and tapestries.
  • Dual-purpose breeds:
    • They produce both quality wool and mutton.
  • Pelt breeds:
    • Lambs are slaughtered to give a superior pelt used in high-quality garments.

3.2 Characteristics of a functional ram and ewe

• Sheep should be robust with strong straight legs and hard well-formed hooves.
  • They should have good teeth and a proper bite.
• Rams should show a bold masculine appearance and carry good fleshing.
• Ewes should have a well-balanced udder with two functional medium-sized teats.

3.3 Wool breeds
The main wool breed is the Merino due to its skin area, follicle density, fibre diameter and fibre length, which are well suited to wool breeding.

3.3.1 General characteristics of wool and the wool breed
The wool from one sheep is called a fleece, from many sheep, a clip. A sheep produces from 1 to 12 kg of wool annually. The weight of clean wool produced is determined by:

• Skin area:
  • The bigger the sheep, the greater the area of skin on which wool can grow. Due to their larger size, rams usually produce more wool than ewes of the same breed. Skin area should not be increased by wrinkles, as loose skin is susceptible to skin disease.
• Follicle density:
  • Wool fibres are produced from follicles in the skin. The total number of follicles per skin area is called the ‘population density’. Sheep with a denser population of follicles produce a greater quantity of wool, which is also of finer texture. The follicles come in two types: primary and secondary. The ratio of primary to secondary follicles is called the S/P ratio. The sheep with the finest fleece will have the highest population density and the highest S/P ratio.
• Fibre diameter:
  • this is the most critical factor in determining what the wool will be used for, and consequently, its price. Samples can be taken and tested. The diameter of the primary and secondary follicles is written as dp/ds and is measured in microns. Ultra-fine grades of wool are less than 17,5 microns, while strong grades are closer to 22,6 microns. The sheep with the finest fleece will have a low dp/ds ratio.
• Fibre length (closely related to staple length):
  • The longer the fibre, the more wool. Sheep with long staple will have higher yields.

Wool breeds are selected for their large frames, plain bodies (few wrinkles), open faces, long staple, dense fleeces, good character, and ease of handling. Colour can also be considered: the whitest wool is often the most sought after as it is easier to dye.

Description of Merino breed

3.4 Mutton breeds
Sheep production for mutton is divided into fat-tailed breeds and mutton breeds.

3.4.1 General characteristics of fat-tailed and mutton breeds
Fat-tailed breeds (Blackhead Persian, the Ronderib Afrikander, Van Rooy, Karakul):

• Characterised by their large tails and hindquarters.
• The carcass quality is quite good, with most of the fat concentrated in the tail area (up to 5 kilograms per 27 kilogram carcass).
  • Specifically bred for the unique quality of the fat stored in the tail area.
  • The fat is semi-fluid and readily adaptable as a form of butter, and is used for cooking and sausage making, though animal fats have decreased in popularity.
• They are hardy and adaptable and able to withstand desert life.

Description of fat-tailed breeds

3.4.2 General characteristics of mutton breeds
A worldwide trend towards more lean meat = preference for mutton breeds.

• Must have a round neck and loin, a straight back and straight well-muscled legs.
• Specialised mutton breeds:
  • mature fast
  • have high feed conversion efficiency
  • high weight gains
  • high carcass yield
  • produce good quality mutton.

Description of mutton breeds

3.5 Dual-purpose breeds
Due to the fluctuation of wool demand, and consequently wool prices, it is economically sound to use breeds that can go to the mutton market when wool is down, and vice versa. These are known as dual-purpose breeds.

3.5.1 Description of various dual-purpose breeds

3.6 Pelt breeds
The lambs are slaughtered for their skins very soon after birth. The pelts are used to manufacture exclusive garments. The economic advantage of pelt breeding in our very arid areas is considerable since the ewe ceases lactation and her nutritional needs are then about half that of a lactating ewe.

3.6.1 Description of the Karakul breed

Unit 4: Goat Breeds

4.1 General characteristics of goats

• Different goat breeds were developed to produce milk, meat and fibre.
• Most breeds have a pair of horns, unless they carry the dominant poll gene.
• Both male and female goats can have beards.
• Some breeds of sheep and goats look similar, but can be distinguished by the tails: in goats = short and point upwards; in sheep, tails hang down and usually = larger.
• Female has an udder with two teats.

4.2 Dairy breeds

• The dairy doe is fine and feminine, with a thin neck, strong spine, wide sprung ribs and barrel shaped chest.
• Does may have wattles (fleshy growths) on either side of the neck. The udder when full must not droop below the hocks. Depending on the breed, does can produce an average of 3 litres of milk a day, with an average of 3,5% of butterfat.
• Bucks, or males, are more strongly built and often have beards

4.2.1 Description of dairy breeds

4.3 Meat breeds

• More heavily muscled than the dairy breeds, although there is some variation in size.
• Either horned or polled and usually have floppy ears. They mostly have short, smooth hair, although they may grow some down in winter.
• The meat of young animals is palatable, but because it is low in fat it can be tough if overcooked or cooked at high temperatures.

4.3.1 Description of meat breeds

4.4 Mohair breeds
The Angora goat produces a long, curling, silky fibre called mohair, which is highly sought after. It is similar to the fibre produced by the Cashmere goat.

4.4.1 Description of the Angora breed

Mohair wool

• Mohair is chemically similar to wool, but it has a smoother surface and has a thin, smooth scale.
  • These features make the fibre strong, elastic and shiny and able to retain dye pigments well.
• Mohair is classified according to the ringlet or locks produced:
  • Type C, or highly curled hair, is the finest type, of highest value in the market.
  • Type B, which is a flat wavy type, is bulkier.
  • Kid mohair, which is very fine, is used for luxury knitted garments like jerseys, shawls and scarves.
  • Mohair from adults is used for making suits, coats, rugs, blankets, curtains and upholstery.

Unit 5:Pig Breeds

5.1 Classification of pigs based on production purposes

• When pigs were first domesticated they were used for their meat (pork) and also for their fat (lard).
• When commercial farmers began to practise intensive pig farming, they evaluated the speed at which pigs grew and when fat was laid down on the muscle so that they could produce the correct animal for market requirement, for example
  • a pig for meat, or
  • a pig with more fat for bacon and lard production.
• Commercial pigs are bred to produce meat rapidly on high quality feed.

5.1.1 Pork production

• Pork is produced from young pigs:
  • 14–16 weeks old
  • weigh roughly 60–70 kg when they are slaughtered.
• Porkers are fed with a diet that encourages rapid growth and maximal meat production with minimal fat deposits.

5.1.2 Bacon production

• Bacon is produced from older, heavier pigs weighing 70–90 kg.
• The meat of an older animal has more fat deposits than a younger one → makes it suitable for producing bacon.
• Young boars intended for bacon production must be castrated before they reach maturity.
  • Such boars are called barrows.

5.2 Differences between indigenous and improved breeds
With the exception of the wild pig species, there are no real indigenous pig breeds in South Africa. Those regarded as African have probably arisen from imported breeds that originally became feral (wild) and then developed their own characteristics as they adapted to conditions. These indigenous breeds differ from the pig breeds used in intensive commercial production systems in that they can forage for food.

5.2.1 The Kolbroek

• Is thought to have come from China.
• It is a short, heavy pig with a flat face.
• It can live in semi-wild conditions in rural areas where it forages for food.

5.2.2 The Windsnyer (Wind cutter)

• Is a narrow-bodied, long-nosed breed with a sharp back.
• They can be black, brown or spotted.
• It can survive well on waste and scraps around households and farms.

5.3 Description of various pork breeds
A small pool of breeds is used in the commercial intensive pork production units, namely the Large White, Landrace, Duroc, Hampshire, and Chester White. These breeds are continually crossbred to produce piglets that:

• have good food conversion efficiency
• are able to produce the lean meat required by the market.

5.3.1 Large White

• Very large, sturdy pink-coloured pig with a thin, white hair coat.
• A characteristic head with a short snout, dished face and erect ears.
• The sows are good mothers.
• Less susceptible to stress than, for example, the Landrace.
• It is the most numerous breed in intensive systems.

5.3.2 Landrace

• Originated in Denmark and was then improved by breeders in the USA.
• It is a white pig with a long body and flatter back than most other breeds.
  • It has a long, narrow head, smooth jowls and large heavy ears.
  • The rump is long and meaty and the hams are plump.
• It is the second most numerous breed, and is used in crosses with the Large White.

5.4 Description of various bacon breeds
Modern piggeries slaughter baconers at a heavier mass than porkers. Male piglets intended for bacon production are castrated.

5.4.1 Hampshire

• Black pig with a white belt across the body and shoulders.
• It is used for cross breeding with other breeds to improve performance.

5.4.2 Tamworth

• A distinct bacon type breed of English pig, but is not used much in South African piggeries.
• Long rather than wide.
• Brown haircoat.
• Rugged, thrifty and active.

Unit 6: Poultry Breeds

6.1 Classification of poultry based on their production purposes
The poultry industry supplies more than 60% of all the animal protein consumed in South Africa annually. Poultry production is classified according to the scale and type of farming employed for raising the birds. For example:

• Intensive production systems = the major methods for raising poultry and producing poultry products.
  • The birds are raised in large numbers in small, usually specifically designed houses.
  • It is a highly sophisticated industry, based on scientific principles and requires constant and intense management and high quality feed.

6.1.1 Broiler production

• Broilers are heavy breeds used for meat production.
• They are bred for their fast growth rate.
• Large numbers of broiler chickens are raised in specifically designed houses and fed specifically balanced diets from when they hatch.
• At six to seven weeks, at a weight of about 2 kg, they are slaughtered for their meat, which is then sold fresh, frozen, or as value-added products, such as chicken fingers, portion, etc.
• This competitive industry requires the most efficient birds with respect to growth rate, survivability and feed conversion. Only the modern breeds, such as Cobb 500 and Ross broilers, meet these stringent standards.

6.1.2 Egg production

• Layer hens and dual-purpose hens are kept for the production of fresh eggs.
• They are lighter and grow more slowly than broiler fowls and so it is not economical to raise roosters of these breeds on expensive balanced grower feed.
• The 22 million layers in South Africa lay about 300 eggs per year, producing about 6.6 billion eggs per year.
• Layer birds are raised on the ground until they are at point of lay (16 weeks) at which time they are put into specifically designed layer houses, 3 or 4 to a small wire cage called ‘battery cages’. In these small cages they live, eat and lay eggs for 52 weeks, producing up to 300 eggs each.
• The breeds used need to be efficient with respect to egg production, egg quality, survivability and feed conversion. Hi-Line, Hybro and Amberlink meet these very stringent standards.

A summary of the breeds used in various production systems in South Africa

6.1.3 Other types of poultry production systems

• Breeder farms on which layers or broilers are bred. Old breeders are sold as spent hens or Cornish hens → slaughtered for meat.
• Semi-intensive production and free range farms → are favoured by members of the public who prefer a more humane and organic type of farming system where the birds have more space.
• Subsistence or backyard farming.
• Hobby farming.

6.2 Basic requirements for successful poultry production
6.2.1 Housing
The housing requirements depend on the intensity of the system employed to rear the birds.

• Extensive systems:
  • housing is a simple shelter against the elements.
• Semi-intensive backyard systems:
  • normally consists of a small shed to provide shelter and a place for the hens to lay their eggs. It allows them to forage in the day, but they can be closed in at night for protection against the weather and predators. In commercial farming, semi-intensive free-range systems also exist.
• Intensive production systems:
  • hold between 100 and 10 000 birds, all of the same age. From 12 to 20 birds occupy one square metre of house floor space. Because of the density of the birds, ventilation is very important, as the build-up of ammonium gas from the faeces can cause diseases of the lungs. Some of the intensive houses are air conditioned to maintain optimal temperature, humidity and fresh airflow. Other requirements are:
    • a concrete floor to allow disinfection
    • absorbent bedding such as sawdust
    • orientation of the house along a north-south direction
    • walls for shade and protection against wind
    • a double-sloped corrugated iron roof at least 2 m from the ground, with a 60 cm overhang to keep rain out.
• Layer houses:
  • similar to intensive systems, but hens are kept in rows of small, raised, wire cages (5 or 6 per cage). They are automatically fed and given water through piping with nipples in each small cage. Droppings fall through the cage to the floor for easy cleaning. Eggs roll into a collector.

6.2.2 Management

• Management systems for intensive production systems of broilers and egg production must be scientific and use an ‘all in – all out’ system that allows effective disease control. For example:
  • In broiler houses 10 000 day-old broiler chicks are placed in the house and then kept for 6 weeks, after which all are sent for slaughter.
  • During week 7, the house is emptied, the litter removed and the house cleaned and disinfected.
  • The next week a new batch of day old chicks is brought in.
• Layers are also managed according to an ‘all in – all out’ system, but the cycle is 52 weeks long.
• Other important management activities include:
  • supplying the correct type of feeders and drinkers with proper spacing and height to ensure all birds can feed and drink
  • instituting vaccination and medication against the diseases.
• In the case of both broilers and layers extra hours of light (daylight) can be provided to increase production.

6.2.3 Breeding
Breeding for intensive production systems (e.g. the broiler and layer breeds) are selected for specific characteristics as shown in the table below.

6.2.4 Nutrition

• Extensively raised poultry find most of their own food consisting of wild seeds, greens and insects.
  • Their production can be improved by giving them a supplement of leftover food or a small amount of ready mixed feed.
• Feeding intensively raised broiler chickens or layers requires well balanced rations which give high levels of production, a fast growth rate in broilers and almost an egg a day for a full year from layers.
  • Most big producers produce their own scientifically balanced concentrate feeds
    → made mainly from maize, sunflower and soya to which vitamins and minerals are added.
  • Some poultry producers buy ready-made feeds from specialist feed companies
    → supplied as mash, crumbles or pellets.

Broilers have a starter, a grower and a finisher ration. Layers also get a starter ration, followed by a layer grower mash.

• The amounts to be fed differ with the age of the birds and also with the type of bird, for example, whether it is a layer or broiler.
• The food must be stored properly to protect it against insects and rodents.

Unit 7: Horses, Donkeys and Mules

7.1 Classification of the main horse breeds based on their purposes

• Light horse breed = riding horse → suitable for dressage, jumping, racing and polo.
• Draft horse breeds = bigger and stronger → used to pull loads, such as carts, farm implements and carriages.
• All our horses have been imported, but some local breeds like the Boerperd and the Nooitgedacht have been bred and adapted to local conditions.
• The Basuto pony is a small, hardy breed that has been adapted for the cold mountainous regions in Lesotho where it is used as a riding horse, providing local people with transport in difficult terrain.
• The zebra is the only indigenous member of the equine family in southern Africa.

7.2 Warm-blood and cold-blood horses
After horses were domesticated in the northern hemisphere, various types developed due to the different environmental conditions:

• In Europe a large, heavily muscled horse with a long hair coat was selected, which was suited to doing heavy work because of its strength and its calm temperament. This gave rise to the so-called cold blood breeds.
• In the Middle East, smaller, light-bodied horses developed = thin skinned, long- legged, fast, sensitive and energetic. These horses were referred to as the hot bloods.
• Since the development of the various breeds, there has been crossbreeding of the hot bloods with cold bloods to produce horses suitable for particular purposes. These are now referred to as warm bloods.
• Most modern breeds are warm bloods because some crossbreeding has occurred.

7.3 Riding or light horse breeds
The light horse breeds are those that have mainly hot blood characteristics of slim body and slim legs: this makes them suitable for athletic activities, e.g. racing or jumping.

7.3.1 Arabs or Arabian horses

• Predominantly a hot blood breed, originating from the Middle East.
• They are small (14–15 hands), short backed, but very strong horses with a distinct head shape and high tail carriage.
• They are good natured, quick learners and have a willingness to please, which makes them suitable for riding and endurance.
• The coat colour is usually grey although there are other colours.
• The skin has dark pigmentation that protects them from the sun.

7.3.2 Saddle horse (American Saddlers)

• Developed in Kentucky in the USA for riding.
• Have a high stepping gait and very upright head carriage = good for showing.
• Comfortable gait and steady temperament = pleasure riding and jumping.

7.4 Draught horse breeds
Draught horses are mainly cold bloods (size and strength).

7.4.1 Percheron

• Originated in France during the 1600s. First used as a war-horse, later used for pulling coaches, ploughs or carts in agriculture and heavy industries.
• As machinery has replaced them, they have been crossbred with hot or warm blood breeds. Now used for riding, cattle herding and even meat production.
• The typical Percheron = very large (16–17 hands high). It has a grey coat and has large heavy hooves and long hair, or feathering, around the hooves.
• They are placid and easy to handle despite their great size and strength.

7.4.2 Hackney

• Developed in England.
• A warm blood used specifically for pulling carriages. It has great stamina and can trot at high speed for long distances, because of its powerful hindquarters and characteristic high knee and hock action.
• The average Hackney is 15 hands high and can be brown or black.

7.5 Donkeys and mules
7.5.1 Donkeys

• Averaging nine hands high, with large ears, a woolly hair coat and powerful bodies.
• Derived from desert animals, they are hardy and able to survive on poor vegetation, but do not do well in wet, swampy areas.
• Were used as working animals on farms or in villages for transport, riding, pulling carts and in food or water mills (still used in the rural areas of developing countries).
• Some communities use donkeys as a food source.
• They are resistant to horse sickness, an African disease that kills horses.

7.5.2 Mules

• Some equine species can cross breed, but most matings are sterile (no offspring). An exception is the mating of horses and donkey: produces a mule. Less often a horse stallion and a donkey jenny produce a ‘hinny’.
• Exceptionally strong and are used for farming and forestry.
• Resistant to African horse sickness.

Unit 8: Game Animals

8.1 Classification of game animals

• Game farming is the commercialisation of wildlife by private landowners.
• It is a rapidly growing branch of agriculture in southern Africa.
• It began because only 16,4% of South Africa is considered as having high agricultural potential, from the point of view of soil quality, rainfall and evaporation, as shown in Figure 5.49. The remaining 80% of land is agriculturally marginal and is only useful for extensive grazing.
• In areas where harsh conditions, poor grazing and indigenous diseases makes profitable livestock farming difficult, game ranching has many advantages over livestock farming:
  • game animals, because they have been in southern Africa longer than livestock, are better adapted to the climate, vegetation and local diseases.
  • they are able to utilise veld better than livestock, because there are many species each with their own particular feeding preference.
• The type of game ranching practised will depend on the region, the size of the land and species farmed/kept.
• The main categories of activity are tourism, hunting or harvesting for meat (venison), breeding of rare or endangered species and conservation (see table below).
• Conservation of wild animals is generally done by government, but the preservation of some endangered species has been achieved by the efforts of private landowners, in particular the rhinoceros species and the bontebok.

Wild animal species used for game ranching or farming

8.2 Importance of game farming

• Game numbers have increased in South Africa since 1850 → means that the biodiversity of the country has increased.
• Economically game farming generates income from
  • breeding of rare species
  • local hunting
  • trophy hunting (mainly foreigners bringing foreign exchange to South Africa)
  • eco-tourism, with a total gross income of more than R2 billion per year
  • meat production.
• The average game ranch is 983 ha, with an economic output of R220/ha compared with R80/ha on conventional stock farms.
  • Three times more staff is employed on game ranches than on livestock farms.
  • The gross income from wildlife ranching annually in South Africa is R7,7 billion compared with the poultry (R20 billion) and red meat (R18 billion) industries.
• South Africa imports about R2 billion of red meat annually, so sustainable wild game meat production has a lot of potential → to contribute to food security.

Topic 5: Questions

• Answer the questions below.
• Give yourself one hour.
• Check your answers afterwards and do corrections.

QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief overview of the development and domestication of farm animals. (12)
2. Give two reasons why the livestock industry in South Africa is important for the economy. (2)
3. Briefly describe how digestion takes place in ruminants and non-ruminants. (4)
4. Complete the table of animal terms (white blocks). (10)
   

   Species and alternate terminology	Adult male	Young male	Castrated male	Adult female	Young female	Young
   Cattle (bovine)	bull		ox (plural oxen)	cow		calf
   Sheep (ovine)	ram	–		ewe	–	lamb
   Goats (caprine)	ram/buck	–		doe/nanny	–
   Pigs (porcine, swine, hogs)		–		sow		piglet
   Horses (equine)	stallion	colt	gelding	mare	filly	foal
   Donkeys		colt	gelding		filly	foal
   Chickens	rooster	–		hen	–	chick

5. Name the two main types of the genus Bos and give three characteristics of each. (8)
6. What are the general characteristics of a beef bull? (5)
7. Name three dairy cattle breeds. (3)
8. Give the classification of sheep breeds based on their utilisation. (4)
9. Name two meat goat breeds and give a brief description of each. (6)
10. Name the two main pork breeds and give a description of each. (6)
11. List the four basic requirements for successful poultry production. (4)
12. Give four reasons why game farming is important for the South African economy. (4)

[Total marks: 70]