• Overview
• Animal Production Systems
• Animal Shelter
• Behaviour and handling of farm animals
• Topic questions

Overview

Animal production systems

1. Types of animal production systems
The different ways to raise farm animals are called production systems. The two main production systems are intensive and extensive production systems. They are used in the two main types of farming systems: large-scale (commercial) farming and small scale (or subsistence) farming.
Differences between intensive and extensive production systems

Differences between small-scale and large-scale farming systems

2. Examples of intensive farming production
Three common types of intensive farming production are:

• feedlots: young sheep and cattle are kept in small camps and fed rations which will fatten or grow the animals to market readiness
• commercial dairies: large numbers of lactating cows are fed and milked
• broiler production: large numbers of birds are raised in well-designed poultry houses.

Factors to increase animal production under intensive farming
Raising animals in intensive systems allows an increase in production.
Various factors must be addressed to achieve this. We look at broiler production as an example.

• Nutrition and feeding
• Commercial broilers are hybrid birds that are selected for their ability to grow rapidly when fed a nutrient-rich diet. This ensures that the broiler is ready for the market at roughly 30 days of age.
• Environment
• Broilers are generally raised in well-designed houses:
• where they are fed good quality food so they do not have to use energy looking for food
• that protects the animal from the excesses of the weather which can cause disease and death, and which can reduce their food intake
• that have artificial lighting in winter which increases their food intake and therefore their growth.
• Reproduction and breeding
• Broilers in commercial production systems are hybrids or cross breeds such as the Cobb 500.
• They grow rapidly under intensive conditions.
• General enterprise management
• Intensive broiler production systems are very economical, but they must be managed properly to avoid deaths and loss of production.
• Hygiene: Overcrowding amongst birds can cause hygiene problems.
• This includes the build-up of ammonia from the faeces.
• Housing design:
  → Poor ventilation: Houses must be well ventilated because poor ventilation can cause respiratory problems in the birds.
  → Feeders and watering points: There must be enough feeders and watering points evenly spaced throughout the house so that the birds to have easy access and prevent weight loss.
  → Disease management: Broiler farms have an intensive vaccination and medication programme to limit the effects of disease. The broiler house is managed as an all-in-all-out system. This means that all the birds are removed and slaughtered at the same time. The house is then cleaned and disinfected before new birds are brought in.

Broiler farming is economical as large numbers of birds are grown rapidly at a high level of nutrition. It is more expensive to raise meat-producing breeds in extensive systems because they grow more slowly and fewer can be kept.

3. Examples of extensive farming production
Examples of extensive farming production: Stud, beef, mutton, wool and mohair farms.

Factors to increase extensive farming beef production
Factors to address to increase beef cattle production in extensive farming systems.

• Nutrition and feeding
• Forage is the main source of feed for beef production. So, veld management is important to keep grazing in good condition to provide sufficient feed for the animals. Feed supplements can be used to provide additional nutrients when these levels are low in veld grasses.
• Environment
• The environment includes climate, vegetation and diseases. Indigenous or cross breed cattle are better adapted to the local environment than European breeds. So, farmers should use local breeds to increase beef production.
• Reproduction and breeding
• Fertility is a very important factor since production depends on the number of calves produced. To ensure a high calving percentage, bulls must be checked for their ability to mate as well as their fertility. There must also be enough bulls to serve (mate) the number of cows in the herd. It is also important to choose the correct breed for the desired carcass at slaughter.
• General enterprise management
• Three general enterprise management areas must be considered:
• Animal
  health management: An essential part of the management of beef production is a good animal health programme.
• Veld management: Veld management programmes must also be implemented. A camp rotation system will allow the grazing to be rested. 
• Marketing plan: The marketing plan should address how the weaners can be sold for maximum profit. The farmer has to decide if the animals should be fed for longer (rounding off) on the farm, or if it would be more profitable to sell them to feedlots.

Animal shelter

1. Types of animal shelters
Farm animals depend on their owners to provide shelter from the environmental conditions. In some cases, such as poultry farming, shelter must also include protection from predators such as cats, genets and jackals.

Importance of animal shelter
Failure to shelter animals is cruel and also impacts on their health and production. So, farm animals must be protected from:

• Severe cold:
• Warm-blooded animals that are exposed to very severe cold may not be able to maintain their normal body temperature. This may result in:
• death from hypothermia
• lung infection which can cause poor growth or death.
• Extreme heat:
• Death due to hyperthermia can be caused by extreme heat.
• Hyperthermia can also cause loss of appetite as animals use energy to keep cool (by sweating and panting).
• So, milk production decreases dramatically in dairy animals in hot conditions.
• Wetting:
• Wetting by rain causes chilling of the animal because it lowers the body temperature and uses up valuable energy.
• It can cause damage to the wool of sheep. For example:
• sheep can suffer from fleece rot or a skin infection called lumpy wool.
• Strong sun:
• Pigs with light skins can suffer from sunburn and so they need protection from sunlight.

Certain species, such as pigs and poultry, are sensitive to extreme heat and cold.

Shelters in extensive and intensive animal production
The type of farming enterprise or system (e.g. extensive animal production or intensive animal production) determines the type of shelter used.

• Simple shelters and screens
• All animals need protection from various weather elements.
• Extreme heat: Under veld conditions, protection from heat is usually provided by trees. Water troughs should be placed here to keep drinking water cool. In semi-desert areas where there are no naturally occurring trees, you can plant trees or provide metal or shade cloth shelters.
• Wind: Strong prevailing winds which can cause chilling. In extensive systems, you can either create a windbreak in fields by planting a line of trees in the path of the prevailing wind or you can build a small, three-sided shelter and ensure that the opening faces away from the wind direction. Ventilation must be checked in closed houses. It should allow adequate air flow without causing cold draughts through the house.
• Rain, snow and extreme cold: All farm animals in areas with heavy rainfall or severe snowfalls in winter animals need shelter from rain and snow. Sheds can provide this under extensive conditions. They should have some type of insulation, such as straw bedding, which will keep animals warm.
• Open housing
• Open animal houses provide shelter from the weather but also allow animals to exercise, sunbathe and explore their natural environment.
• It is used in free range pig and poultry systems as well as for calves on dairy farms. This form of shelter is used in backyard, free range and semi-intensive farming systems.
• Open animal houses:
• are usually placed in fields, camps or yards
• are often mobile so they can be moved and cleaned elsewhere hygienic reasons
• can be brick buildings, moulded plastic huts or corrugated iron barrels.
• Closed housing
• Closed houses are used mainly in highly intensive farming systems (e.g. mainly for pigs and poultry because these two species are very susceptible to environmental extremes).
• This form of shelter completely protects animals from the environment.
• Sheds
• These are buildings which are used to accommodate animals temporarily, such as when shearing sheep or milking cows.
• They are designed to provide shelter for animals and operators.
• Holding pens and crushes
• Holding pens are fenced areas in which animals are held before they are handled.
• Crushes are narrow passages that are fenced on either side. They are used to lead animals to dip tanks or milking parlours. Crushes can also be used to restrain animals when you need to vaccinate or apply tick remedies.

Ruminants are sometimes housed indoors on farms in the northern hemisphere during winter due to extreme cold. This is rarely necessary in South Africa because our climate is not as severe.

2. Intensive animal production systems
Intensive production systems involve industrial production of livestock in confinement (i.e. kept in some kind of housing or shelter) at high stocking density. Intensive systems include small-scale systems, semi-intensive systems or free range systems.

Backyard farming
Farm animals are sometimes raised in backyards in buildings such as garages. These systems are not usually suitable because they have poor ventilation, rough unhygienic floors and they do not receive sunlight. Intensive farms in backyard buildings often experience health problems and are in violation of some municipal and health by-laws.

Intensive/semi-intensive systems
Intensive and semi-intensive systems include closed animal houses, open houses with pens, holding pens for handling animals, shearing sheds or milking parlours, and feed stores. The system will be chosen based on the type of animal being raised.

Free range systems
Free range systems are in between intensive and backyard enterprises. Animals are provided with housing but they also have access to enclosed camps in which they forage for food.

• Free range poultry production system
• In this system, layers are given a house where they can lay eggs and roost, and a run in which they can exercise, sunbathe and investigate their surroundings. They are able to scratch around for food but they are also given enough food to meet with their production needs.
• This kind of housing allows for a more stimulating environment than intensive systems. Animals are therefore less likely to be bored, stressed or develop behavioural abnormalities.
• Free range pig production system
• This system provides a shelter and open pens, and sometimes a mud wallow or a sprinkler system to keep pigs cool.
• The shelter is in the form of permanent open-sided houses or mobile houses like corrugated barrels. The pigs use the pens to move around in, rootle in soil and to defecate.
• The pens can be rotated around the house or the house can be moved to keep the pen area hygienic.
• Crops can be planted where the pigs have fertilised the soil. Pigs can forage for some of their food but they can also be provided with feed. The amount of feed given will depend on the level of production.
• Free range dairy production system
• Most small dairies in South Africa are free range systems as the cows are grazed in a series of open camps. They usually graze on forage or they are fed fodder such as silage.
• These camps must provide shade and some solid shelter from rain.
• The cows are brought into a holding pen and from here they move into the milking parlour. (Calf houses are sometimes used to separate individuals and limit the spread of infection.)
• Separate milking stalls, divided by rails, usually contain feed troughs to encourage and train the cows to enter the stalls.
• Milking is done by hand or with milking units, and the milk is stored and chilled in a milk room next to the milking parlour.

3. Shelter requirements for an intensive production system
All shelters must protect the animals and also ensure maximum production.

• Basic requirements of open houses
• built from material that can be cleaned easily
• sufficient floor space for all the animals to be accommodated under the roof
• bedding such as straw to keep the shelter dry and warm
• easy access to water and feed
• open side of the house must face away from the prevailing wind.
• Basic requirements of closed houses
• no poisonous building material or metal sheets which can wound animals; strong gates and partitions to prevent damage by animals
• non-slip cement floors which allow easy cleaning and enough floor space for the species and size of animals
• bedding on the floor for comfort
• feeders and water troughs or nozzles
• allow air movement without causing cold draughts
• insulated and built with long sides facing north and south (allow it to be warm in winter and cool in summer)
• sloped roof to allow runoff of rain.

Poultry houses should also have roosts for sleeping and nests for laying eggs.

• Some special cases have their own requirements:
• Poultry houses need wire mesh sides to allow air flow and canvas curtains to close sides in cold weather conditions.
• Houses for day old chicks or young piglets may need heating or cooling systems.
• Piggeries need separate facilities for sows and weaners, and passages for manure removal.

Basic requirements of milking parlours

• roofed shelter with separate milking stalls created by wooden poles, or shed enclosed by concrete walls
• concrete floor should be non-slip and slope downward to a drain for easy washing
• cement or metal feed trough in each stall for daily allowance of concentrate (given according to milk production of each cow)
• an adjacent milk room
• holding pen which leads to milking parlour; dry and clean to prevent dirtying the parlour
• footbath at entrance to clean animals’ hooves (reduces contamination).
• Basic requirements of holding pens and holding sheds
• must be constructed with suitable materials that will not injure the animals:
• well-built with strong metal, cement or wooden poles to support cross poles or wire netting
• no barbed wire, corrugated iron, sharp edges or protruding poles or nails which could injure animals
• gates that allow flow of animals to their destination.
• Basic requirements of crushes
• built with strong metal, cement or wooden poles placed vertically, and enclosed with horizontal poles
• head clamps can be placed at the end of the crush to restrain individual animals
• for cattle, the crush width must fit a single adult animal.
• Basic requirements for feeding sheds
• constructed of suitable materials that will not injure the animals
• have overhead shelter that prevents feed from being wetted by rain
• provide shelter from sun, if they are open
• have enough feeders to prevent dominant animals from keeping other animals away
• have a good water supply that is in the shade to prevent evaporation and concentration of mineral salts
• be regularly cleaned to prevent rodent problems

If animals are to be held in the pen or shed for some time, water must be provided at various points and sun protection should be given.

4.  Equipment and tools for intensive housing systems

• Feeders
• Feed is the most expensive item in any farming setup. It is therefore important to prevent unnecessary wastage and spoilage. Feeders must be spaced to ensure that all animals receive sufficient food for their needs.
• Types of feeders used in intensive systems depend on the species of farm animal.
• Poultry farms use either hand-filled feeders or mechanised feeders. The hanging feeder is placed on the ground initially and then raised as the birds get older. It is filled by hand and is designed to prevent the birds from climbing into the container. Mechanised feeders are connected to feed hoppers which deliver the feed into the troughs such as the mechanical trough or pan feeders.
• Various types of feed troughs are used in piggeries and dairies. Animals with their own stalls usually have a cement trough with the correct amount of feed. Dairy calves are supplied with buckets for feeding milk, concentrate and hay. Feeders that can accommodate more than one animal at a time are used to feed groups of animals. It is important to provide sufficient feeders so that each animal gets enough feed every day.
• Water supply
• Clean, fresh drinking water is an essential requirement for animals kept in intensive systems. Water containers and piping must be made of material that can be easily cleaned and disinfected.
• Automatic drinkers are used in intensive poultry farms. They are connected to a pipe system which delivers water into the container or tube. This also allows the farmer to deliver vaccine and medication in the water. Examples of commonly used drinkers are the Bell type, troughs and nipple drinkers.
  → Most farms favour the nipple system because they are less wasteful and labour intensive, and more hygienic because they prevent litter wetting.
  → Nipple drinkers deliver a drop of water from the end of a tube when the bird pecks at it. Intensive piggeries also use this system because of the advantages discussed for poultry. Semi-intensive systems either use nipple drinkers or troughs which are filled automatically or manually.
• Bedding or litter
• Used in intensive and semi-intensive systems to keep animals warm and dry. 
• For poultry, wood shavings are preferred in deep litter systems such as in broiler houses. Other options include sunflower seed shells, chopped wheat straw and crushed peanut shells. Hay and maize stalks must be avoided because they carry a large amount of fungal spores. Sawdust is not generally used because it is too fine and creates dust.
• Straw can be used as bedding for dairy stalls, calf housing, sows units, free range houses for pigs and to line the nest of hens.
• Lighting
• Artificial lighting is used mainly in intensive poultry production to increase the number of daylight hours. This increases the feed intake and growth rate of broilers, and ensures continuous egg production throughout the year by layers. The layers moult and decrease their egg production during autumn under natural conditions due to a shortening of daylight hours. But artificial lighting increases the farm’s power usage.

Behaviour and handling of farm animals

1. The behaviour of farm animals
Farm animal behaviour is genetically determined and helps the animal to survive and reproduce. Observation of farm animal behaviour will help you learn their body language so that you can:

• detect problems with the health of the animal or the conditions under which they are being kept
• handle animals correctly to avoid injury to yourself and the animals
• predict how they will react in different circumstances.

The flight zone
Each animal species has its own flight zone or distance at which it decides to run away from predators and human handlers. Tame animals have small flight zones. When you enter an animal’s flight zone in front of their point of balance (roughly in front of the shoulder), it will move away from you. If you want the
animal to move forward, then you need to move into the flight zone to position A. If you want it to stop, then you should move to position B. You can use these rules to move the animal in the required direction.
This technique is used mainly to herd cattle and sheep.

Common behaviours of large ruminants

• General behaviour of large ruminants
• Domestic cattle are social animals that gather in herds. The herd has a hierarchical structure, which means that some animals dominate others by showing an aggressive display.
• The hierarchy of dominance becomes important when food is limited as the animals will then compete with each other and the most dominant animal will get the most feed.
• This behaviour is used to communicate dominance without injuring the subordinate animals.
• Aggression is shown when by lowering of the head, bellowing and pawing the ground.

Cattle spend their days grazing, resting, ruminating, self-grooming and grooming each other.
Cattle have panoramic vision except for a small blind spot directly behind them. They have poor depth perception so they often refuse to enter dark places like spray races or to cross over cattle gates.

• Breeding behaviour of large ruminants
• The breeding behaviour of cattle follows a pattern.
• A cow on heat becomes excitable, mounts or butts head with other cows and seeks out the bull.
• The bull responds to the smell of the cow’s urine. When the cow is ready, she will stand still for the bull and allow him to mount her and mate.
• Maternal behaviour of large ruminants
• Cows about to calve show specific maternal behaviour.
• They will look for an isolated shelter with a soft, dry surface to lie on.
• The cow licks the calf and eats the afterbirth immediately after calving.
• A strong, specific maternal bond forms if the calf is allowed to stay with her.
• Abnormal behaviour of large ruminants
• Various types of abnormal behaviour are seen in cattle. This behaviour is most commonly seen when they are ill.

Common behaviours of small ruminants

• General behaviour of small ruminants
• Sheep form strong social groups and bonds within a flock and they stay close together while grazing or being herded. This is called mobbing behaviour.
• If you handle sheep routinely they become tame and will readily learn to enter camps or chutes.
• Unlike cattle, sheep have a poorly defined hierarchy and they seldom show aggression, except among rams during the breeding season.
• Breeding behaviour of small ruminants
• Ewes on heat will seek out the rams and stay close beside them. The smell of the ewe in oestrus will stimulate the ram. The ram will smell the ewe’s urine and he will extend his neck and curl his lip (flehmen) in response.
• A ewe on heat will stand for mating.
• Maternal behaviour of small ruminants
• Many ewes look for an isolated spot in which to lamb.
• They will lick the lamb and eat the foetal membranes after the lamb is born.
• The lamb finds the ewe’s teats and begins to suckle within an hour or two of birth.
• Abnormal behaviour of small ruminants
• Sheep show abnormal behaviour under certain conditions, especially when they are ill. (See Topic 4.)

Common behaviours of intensive non-ruminants (pigs)

• General behaviour of intensive non-ruminants
• Domestic boars are usually kept apart from the sows except when they mate.
• Pigs have a well-developed sense of smell and hearing. But they have poor eyesight so they use their snouts to examine and explore their surroundings.
• Pigs are heat sensitive because they can only sweat from their snouts. They wallow in mud bathes or lie in puddles of water to cool down.
• Young piglets are sensitive to cold and will huddle with their littermates during cold weather.
• Breeding behaviour of intensive non-ruminants
• Sows on heat become interested in boars and respond to their smell. Sows may nibble the boar’s ears and will allow the boar to sniff and nose them.
  The boar mates with the sow when she stands.
• Maternal behaviour of intensive non-ruminants
• The sow builds a nest six hours before giving birth. She hollows out a depression and lines it with straw, grass and sticks. Sows in intensive units will show the same behaviour, although they may be unable to build nest. Piglets compete for the sow’s teats after birth.
• Abnormal behaviour of intensive non-ruminants
• Abnormal behaviour is seen in pigs under certain circumstances, especially when they are ill. (See Topic 4.)

Common behaviour of poultry

• General behaviour of poultry
• Newly hatched chicks are precocial (able to look for their own food and water).
• They are born with a strong pecking instinct which drives them to investigate all objects on the ground as possible food.
• Birds show dominant-submissive behaviour a few weeks after hatching 
• Dominant birds will peck less aggressive birds, especially at food troughs.
  This means that birds at the bottom of the pecking order get less feed.
• Breeding behaviour of poultry
• Breeding is initiated by the male who does a courtship display. He spreads his wings and uses calls and postures.
• Unwilling hens run away or ignore this courtship display.
• Hens ready to breed crouch down and allow the male to mount and mate with her.
• Maternal behaviour of poultry
• Broodiness has been bred out of commercial laying strains of poultry since their eggs are infertile and are collected for use soon after they are laid. In breeding systems a broody hen incubates her eggs for 21 days after which the chicks hatch.
• Abnormal behaviour of poultry
• Poultry usually behave abnormally when they are ill. (See Topic 4.)

2. Handling of farm animals
Reasons for handling farm animals
Farmers and farm workers are required to handle animals at some time during the production cycle. They must know how to handle animals so that the animals are not harmed or killed, and the handler is not hurt by large or aggressive animals.

Harm and effect of handling farm animals incorrectly

• Harm caused by incorrect handling:
• Bruising: This is the most common injury. It can be caused by rough handling and poor facilities such as gates that are too narrow or protrusions on structures like crushes or holding pens. At slaughter the bruised meat has to be trimmed off the carcass with the result that the farmer gets less for the animal.
• Broken legs: Rough handling can scare animals. They may try to jump out of pens and break their legs, fall in crushes or be trampled by other animals. 
• Drowning: Young calves often drown in dip tanks when adult animals jump on top of them.
• Broken necks: Animals may run into fences or barriers and break their necks if handlers chase them wildly.
• Effects of incorrect handling:
• The long-term effect of poor handling is that animals become fearful, aggressive and even more difficult to handle.

Basic guidelines for handling farm animals
There are broad guidelines for handling each farm animal species in order to prevent injuries and long-term negative effects. Always handle animals slowly and calmly, and do not shout, bang equipment, hit the animals or use electric prodders and whips.

Basic guidelines for handling large ruminants (cattle)

• Herding cattle: Learn to judge the flight zone of cattle. It varies depending on how often the cattle are handled, so handle them regularly so that they develop a predictable flight zone.
• When herding cattle, you need to find the point at which the animal keeps moving forward. Move slowly but confidently while you talk or whistle to cattle.
• You reduce and increase your distance from the animal to move it forward.
  → If you move inside the flight zone, the animal will run away.
  → If you move out of the flight zone, the animal will stand still. .
• Handling bulls and cows with calves: Never enter a pasture or camp in which bulls are kept unless you know the animal well.
• Aggressive bulls are usually fed and watered from outside their camps.
• Cows with calves may become aggressive and charge their handlers.
• Handling individual animals: If you need to handle a single animal, bring it with a group into a small camp and then drive the group into a crush where the animal can be restrained.
• You may be able to get close enough to slip on a halter or place a rope around the neck of a tame animal.
• An assistant can grip the flank fold to keep an animal still while you examine or treat it.
• You can use nose tongs or a neck clamp if you need better restraint.

Basic guidelines for handling small ruminants (sheep)
Like cattle, sheep have a flight zone which varies in size according to how frequently they are handled. The distance of their flight zone will decrease if they are handled often. Sheep have a tendency to follow leaders so tame animals or goats can be used to lead them.

• Herding sheep: Apply the same flight zone principles described for cattle. 
• You may need more than one handler to drive sheep in from the veld in the right direction.
• Trained sheepdogs can be used to round up sheep.
• Handling individuals: You can drive individual sheep into a small camp to handle them.
• Use your arms or a barrier gate to drive them into a corner where they cannot escape.
• Grasp the flank fold and raise the head upwards to catch the animal.
• Never grab sheep or goats by the wool or hair because this is painful and can bruise them.

Basic guidelines for handling intensive non-ruminants (pigs)
Pigs should be moved in small groups rather than as individuals. Coax the animals along slowly and allow them to investigate their environment because they have poor eyesight. Use a passage made with moveable gates or boards to guide pigs. Do not use electric prodders on pigs.

• Handling small pigs (under 10 kg): Grasp the hind legs, lift the piglet and support it under the chest.
• Then place the piglet gently back on the ground.
• Never lift piglets by their ears.
• Handling larger pigs (over 10 kg): Make a passageway with two boards and move the pig slowly to where you want it to go.
• Clear the way ahead and urge the pig forward by applying gentle pressure with the boards to its side.
  A piglet being held by its hind legs and supported under its chest
• If you need to restrain the pig for some treatment or examination, then lead it into a small crate or passage where it cannot move.
• If the animal struggles, keep the head still with a snare or rope which is looped around the top half of the snout.

Basic guidelines for handling poultry

• The method used to handle poultry will depend on the tameness and age of the bird. Regular handling will make them tame and prevent injuries.
• Handling baby chicks: Chicks are very fragile so they must be handled gently. Place your hand over them and scoop them off the ground with the other. Do not squeeze or drop them because this will cause injury or death.
• Handling adult birds: Move slowly towards the bird and drive it into a narrow space such as the corner of the run. Place your hand on the back of the fowl you want to catch, grasp its legs and place your fingers between the feet. Never grab the feathers, wings or tail as this will injure the bird.

3. Techniques and tools to handle farm animals
Correct use of techniques, tools and aids will help produce healthy, productive animals.

Ropes

• Ropes can be used to handle and restrain large farm animals in various ways.
• You can restrain cattle by looping a rope around the neck or horns.
• It can also be used to lift the feet of cattle to examine their hooves.
• Dairy cows can be hobbled with ropes while they are being milked so that they cannot kick their handler.
• You can restrain large pigs with a snare or loop of rope.

Halters

• Halters are made of leather, nylon or rope and they fit around the head of the animal.
• A length of rope is attached to the halter and it is used to lead the animal.
• They are useful to lead tame cattle, and even large bulls can become halter tame.
• Halters can also be used to keep the head of a cow still when a neck clamp is not available.

Nose tongs

• Nose tongs can also be used to restrain cattle when no neck clamp is available or it can be used in addition to the neck clamp.
• It is useful to attach a rope to the end of the nose tongs and this prevents injury to handlers if the nose tongs come loose.
• Place the pincers of the tongs around the nostrils and close the tongs.
• Cattle will not struggle as their noses are sensitive.

Boards

• Boards are used to move larger pigs from one place to another.

Neck clamps

• The neck clamp is a piece of metal equipment which can be opened so that the animal can place its head through and then the clamp is closed around the neck.
• Using boards to lead a pig
• Animals are usually driven through a crush and towards the clamp which is mounted at the end of the crush.
• The neck clamp allows very firm restraint of the head for procedures such as dehorning or examining the mouth. Neck clamps must be used very carefully to prevent injury.

Basic principles when you transport farm animals

• Use trained drivers as sudden braking, excessive speed and sharp turning can cause injuries.
• Do not transport pregnant, diseased or injured animals if possible.
• Do not transport different species together unless they can be separated.
• Do not mix animals of different ages unless they can be separated from each other as young animals may be crushed.
• Keep animals in a quiet shady area for a few hours before they are transported.
• Do not load animals more than an hour before transporting.
• Ensure there is sufficient ventilation and light in the crates on the truck.
• Ensure that there are no sharp projections in the crates which can injure animals.
• Ensure that the floor of the crates is not slippery.
• Use a vehicle with solid sides to load animals so that they cannot fall off.
• Clean the vehicle before and after loading.
• Hose down cattle and pigs in hot weather to cool them down.
• Do not overcrowd the animals. 
• Do not shout, kick, prod or whip animals when offloading.

Topic questions

• Answer the questions below. Check your answers afterwards and do corrections.
• Give yourself one hour.
• Marks: 100

1. List the FOUR main factors that can be addressed to increase the production of any farming system. (4)
2. Explain why free range pig and poultry systems are considered to be more humane than intensive farming systems. (4)
3. State FOUR environmental problems that can occur in closed houses. (4)
4. Mention THREE practical methods that can be used to provide shade for farm animals. (3)
5. Identify TWO harmful effects of the cold on farm animals. (4) 
6. Which farm animals are most susceptible to the cold? (2)
7. Describe methods could you use to prevent pigs from overheating and getting sunburned in free range systems. (3)
8. Name THREE energy efficient ways to control the temperature in closed animal houses. (3)
9. Discuss the importance of well-designed feeders in closed animal houses. (4)
10. Identify the production system in the diagram and explain how it functions. (8)
    
11. Discuss why artificial lighting is used in commercial layer houses. (5)
12. Identify the basic requirements of a free range dairy. (10)
13. Explain the significance of following types of animal behaviour:
    13.1 dominance/submission
    13.2 courtship
    13.3 pecking order
    13.4 grooming. (8)
14. Which ONE of the following is INCORRECT with respect to the precautions that need to be considered when livestock is transported to an abattoir?
    14.1 Different types of animals should NOT be transported together.
    14.2 Pregnant and injured animals should NOT be transported.
    14.3 Animals of different ages and sexes should NOT be transported together.
    14.4 Air and light should NOT be allowed to enter the part of the truck where animals are kept. (2) 
15. Name four signs of aggression in bulls and cows with calves. (4)
16. Name three golden rules which sum up how we should work with farm animals. (3)
17. List FOUR uses of rope in farm animal handling. (8)
18. You need to examine the tongues of cattle for a foot and mouth inspection campaign. Name the tools/aids that you could use to immobilise their heads. (6)
19. Give ONE word/term/phrase for each of the following descriptions. Write only the word/term/phrase next to the question number.
    19.1 A place in the handling facility where cattle are kept during the handling process to avoid injuries. (2)
    19.2 A relatively small area where a large number of animals are kept and fed for optimal production purposes. (2)
20. List five basic requirements of a vehicle used to transport farm animals. (5)
21. Chicks in intensive broiler houses often die purely from management problems. List at least six causes of chick deaths which can be caused by management factors. (6